Chapter 1: The Rise of UAS Threats: A Dual-Use Challenge and Its Weaponization

Unmanned aerial systems (UAS), colloquially known as drones, have rapidly transitioned from niche military tools to widespread commercial technology, accessible to governments, businesses, and individuals alike. Originally developed for military reconnaissance and surveillance, UAS have now expanded into almost every sector, from agriculture to filmmaking, logistics, and public safety. However, this growing accessibility has also exposed the darker side of drone technology. UAS are now increasingly weaponized by terrorists, criminal organizations, and even nation-states as tools for asymmetric warfare, espionage, and sabotage. This chapter delves deeply into the evolution of UAS as a dual-use technology, with an emphasis on how it has become both a tool for progress and a significant global threat.

UAS as Dual-Use Technology: Beneficial and Dangerous

UAS technology has exploded into the mainstream due to its versatility and relatively low cost. Initially a defense innovation, drones soon became integral to industries such as agriculture, where they are used for monitoring crops, spraying pesticides, and analyzing soil health. In disaster response, UAS help rescuers reach hard-to-access areas, delivering aid or identifying stranded individuals in the aftermath of hurricanes or earthquakes. Their ability to conduct real-time surveillance, mapping, and cargo transportation has revolutionized sectors like logistics and humanitarian aid.

However, this same versatility makes UAS attractive to those with nefarious purposes. Terrorists, insurgent groups, and even organized crime syndicates have leveraged commercially available drones to gather intelligence, deliver explosives, transport contraband, and disrupt critical infrastructure. These systems, available for purchase in many cases for just a few hundred dollars, have democratized aerial surveillance and attack capabilities once reserved for well-funded state actors.

This dual-use nature—where technology can serve both civilian and military purposes—complicates the regulatory landscape. Governments around the world are now grappling with how to balance UAS's many legitimate applications with the growing threat of their malicious use. At the heart of this challenge is the increasing ease with which drones can be modified to carry payloads, whether that’s a high-definition camera for monitoring crops or a makeshift bomb for targeting enemy forces.

The Weaponization of UAS: Terrorists and Non-State Actors

Terrorist groups have been quick to recognize the strategic advantages offered by UAS. The Islamic State (ISIS) became one of the earliest adopters of drone technology among non-state actors, using commercially available drones to conduct reconnaissance and later to deliver small bombs. By modifying simple quadcopters—available for less than $1,000—ISIS militants were able to transform these drones into cheap, expendable bombers that wreaked havoc on coalition forces in Iraq and Syria between 2016 and 2017.

ISIS deployed hundreds of such drones, showing not only the adaptability of terrorist groups but also the challenges in countering these threats. These drones, equipped with rudimentary explosive payloads, were highly effective in urban warfare, where their small size allowed them to navigate tight spaces, evade detection, and deliver pinpoint strikes. The psychological impact of these attacks was profound, forcing coalition troops to develop new tactics and divert resources to counter small drone threats.

Hezbollah's Expanding UAS Arsenal

Another prominent example of UAS weaponization comes from Hezbollah, the Lebanese militant group backed by Iran. Hezbollah has been using drones since the early 2000s, initially for reconnaissance missions against Israeli forces. Over the past two decades, however, Hezbollah has significantly expanded its drone capabilities, acquiring and modifying systems capable of carrying out precision strikes.

Iran’s support for Hezbollah’s UAS program has been crucial, providing the group with more advanced models capable of longer range, higher payloads, and greater autonomy. In 2019, Hezbollah reportedly used Iranian-made drones to target Israeli military positions, further demonstrating the group’s proficiency in deploying these systems for offensive purposes.

Non-Traditional Threats: UAS and Criminal Organizations

In addition to terrorist groups, UAS have become a tool for organized crime syndicates and drug cartels. In 2018, U.S. Border Patrol officials discovered that drug cartels were using drones to transport small amounts of narcotics across the U.S.-Mexico border. The drones, which could bypass land-based surveillance systems and navigate complex terrain, represented a new challenge for border security agencies.

Furthermore, criminal groups have started using drones to monitor law enforcement movements, conduct surveillance on rival organizations, and even deliver contraband to prisons. One of the most notable examples was a large-scale operation in Georgia where drones were used to smuggle weapons, drugs, and cell phones into state prisons. The small size and maneuverability of drones allowed criminals to exploit blind spots in prison security, leading to significant operational challenges for authorities.

These examples illustrate how non-state actors are exploiting the accessibility of UAS technology, and how its rapid evolution makes it difficult for law enforcement to keep pace.

UAS and Insider Threats: A Growing Concern at Airports

Airports and aviation infrastructure are increasingly vulnerable to UAS-related threats, particularly from insider actors who exploit their positions to facilitate drone attacks. Commercial drones, once considered outside the scope of aviation security, now represent a significant risk to both civilian and military aircraft. The 2018 Gatwick Airport drone incident, where drones were spotted near the runway, resulted in the grounding of hundreds of flights, demonstrating how even a benign UAS could disrupt critical infrastructure.

This threat becomes exponentially more dangerous when insiders—airport employees, contractors, or even security personnel—collude with external actors to execute drone-based attacks. Insiders have privileged access to secure areas, knowledge of security protocols, and the ability to evade detection. When combined with UAS, this threat is compounded, allowing malicious actors to bypass many of the traditional security measures in place to protect airport facilities.

In addition, insider threats at airports are often difficult to detect until an attack has already been launched. The potential for drones to be used to smuggle explosives onto airplanes or into restricted areas makes it critical for airport authorities to develop robust counter-UAS protocols, including drone detection systems, advanced surveillance technology, and regular personnel vetting.

Chemical and Biological Threats from UAS: A Looming Possibility

Perhaps the most concerning application of UAS by terrorists or rogue actors is their potential use as delivery platforms for chemical or biological agents. The small size, maneuverability, and ability to operate remotely make drones an ideal vehicle for dispersing harmful agents over large, densely populated areas.

In The Chemical and Biological Attack Threat of Commercial Unmanned Aircraft Systems experts highlight how off-the-shelf UAS can be easily modified to carry small amounts of chemical or biological payloads. These systems could be used to disperse toxins like ricin, anthrax, or even radioactive materials over critical infrastructure, public events, or densely populated urban centers. The ability of UAS to evade detection and disperse these agents without a physical human presence makes them a particularly dangerous tool for asymmetric warfare.

In 2018, Mexican authorities thwarted a cartel plot to use drones to deliver explosives during a high-profile political rally. While the specifics of the payload were not disclosed, this case highlighted how easily commercially available drones could be turned into a delivery mechanism for weapons of mass destruction (WMD). With very little expertise, rogue actors can weaponize drones to launch attacks that could have devastating human, economic, and psychological impacts.

Governmental Responses and Counter-UAS Technology

In response to these growing threats, governments around the world are investing heavily in counter-UAS (C-UAS) technologies. From jamming devices that disrupt a drone's communication links to kinetic solutions like anti-drone missiles or even net-capturing drones, the range of C-UAS technologies is expanding rapidly.

The U.S. Department of Defense, for example, has launched several initiatives aimed at developing systems capable of neutralizing drones in a variety of environments. The U.S. Army’s Counter-Unmanned Aircraft System Strategy (2016) outlined a multi-layered approach to drone defense, incorporating both traditional air defense systems and emerging technologies like directed-energy weapons. The Marine Corps has also fielded C-UAS solutions like the Marine Air Defense Integrated System (MADIS), which was used successfully to neutralize an Iranian drone in 2019.

These systems, while effective in controlled environments, face significant challenges when deployed in urban settings or complex terrain. The rapid pace of UAS innovation means that defensive systems must constantly evolve to counter new threats. As drones become smaller, more autonomous, and more difficult to detect, security agencies must adapt quickly to keep up.

Parting thoughts

The rise of UAS as a dual-use technology presents both tremendous opportunities and serious challenges. While drones have revolutionized industries and provided critical capabilities for humanitarian efforts, they have also become a dangerous tool in the hands of terrorists, criminals, and hostile nation-states. The examples of ISIS’s drone bombings, Hezbollah’s reconnaissance missions, cartel drug smuggling, and the potential for chemical or biological drone attacks all demonstrate the severity of the threat. Governments must continue to invest in and develop counter-UAS technologies, while also crafting regulatory frameworks that balance the benefits of UAS with the need for security.

Chapter 2: The Weaponization of UAS by Terrorist Groups and Nation-States

The accessibility of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) technology, once limited to military use, has fundamentally changed the nature of warfare, terrorism, and global security. The rapid proliferation of commercial and military-grade UAS has empowered not only nation-states but also terrorist organizations, criminal syndicates, and non-state actors to harness drones for nefarious purposes. The ability to weaponize these platforms for reconnaissance, strikes, and cyber warfare makes UAS a versatile and dangerous tool in the hands of those who seek to destabilize nations or carry out acts of terrorism.

In this chapter, we will explore how both terrorist organizations and state actors have adapted UAS technology for strategic advantage, analyze specific case studies of drone usage in conflicts, and discuss the implications of these developments on international security.

The Rise of UAS in Asymmetric Warfare

UAS technology has become particularly valuable in asymmetric warfare, where non-state actors like terrorist organizations or insurgent groups face off against more technologically advanced militaries. Drones provide these groups with low-cost access to aerial capabilities, allowing them to gather intelligence, conduct strikes, and disrupt enemy operations with relative impunity.

ISIS: Pioneers of Terrorist UAS Tactics

The Islamic State (ISIS) pioneered the use of commercially available drones as a tactical tool in the Middle East. In the mid-2010s, ISIS acquired small, off-the-shelf drones and modified them to drop grenades or other explosive payloads onto coalition forces. This marked a significant shift in terrorist tactics, as UAS were used not just for surveillance but as offensive weapons. The group’s adeptness at adapting inexpensive consumer drones into makeshift bombers forced coalition forces to rethink their air defense strategies.

One of the most significant battles in which ISIS deployed UAS was during the Battle of Mosul (2016-2017). The group used drones for reconnaissance and to launch small-scale attacks against Iraqi forces, creating operational complications and causing casualties. ISIS’s use of drones in Mosul was a harbinger of how non-state actors would use low-cost UAS to great effect on the battlefield.

Hezbollah's Expanding UAS Capabilities

Hezbollah, backed by Iran, has significantly expanded its use of UAS for both reconnaissance and offensive operations. In 2014, Hezbollah utilized drones to conduct aerial surveillance of Israeli military positions. The group has since developed the capability to launch drone strikes on military targets, creating a new level of threat for the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).

Iran has played a critical role in equipping Hezbollah with more advanced UAS platforms, including loitering munitions that can hover over an area and strike when an opportunity presents itself. Hezbollah’s drones have been used in operations in Syria and against Israeli forces, making it clear that the group views UAS as an integral part of its military strategy.

The 2021 drone attack targeting Israeli defense facilities underscores Hezbollah’s growing ability to strike with precision using drones. With Iranian technical assistance and logistical support, Hezbollah's drone operations have become a significant factor in the ongoing Israel-Lebanon conflict.

State-Sponsored UAS Programs: Iran, China, and Russia

While terrorist groups have exploited UAS for tactical advantage, nation-states have also expanded their use of drones in both conventional and unconventional warfare. Countries such as Iran, China, and Russia have developed sophisticated UAS programs and have used these systems both for domestic security and to exert influence abroad.

Iran's Drone Empire

Iran’s UAS program is one of the most advanced among non-nuclear nations. Iran has developed an array of drones, from small reconnaissance systems to large combat drones capable of carrying heavy payloads. These drones are not only used domestically but have been exported to Iran’s proxy forces across the Middle East, including Hezbollah and the Houthis in Yemen.

In September 2019, Iranian drones and cruise missiles were used in a coordinated attack on Saudi Aramco oil facilities, crippling the kingdom’s oil production for several weeks. This attack demonstrated Iran’s ability to conduct precise, long-range drone strikes on critical infrastructure, raising concerns about the vulnerability of other nations’ oil facilities and energy grids. The drones used in the attack were designed to avoid detection by traditional air defense systems, underscoring the growing sophistication of Iranian UAS capabilities.

Iran’s drones have also played a pivotal role in the Syrian Civil War, where they have been used to support the Assad regime and Iranian-backed militias. By leveraging drone technology, Iran has been able to project power in ways that would have been difficult or costly with conventional military forces.

China and Russia’s Expanding Drone Arsenal

China is rapidly becoming one of the world’s leading exporters of military drones. Chinese companies, like the state-owned China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), have developed the Wing Loong and CH-series drones, which have been sold to countries across the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. These drones are comparable in capability to U.S. Predator and Reaper drones, providing countries that are unable to purchase U.S. or European-made systems with high-quality, long-range UAS.

China’s drones have been used in conflicts in Libya and Yemen, where they have been deployed by various governments and militias to conduct reconnaissance and airstrikes. The proliferation of Chinese drones has raised concerns about the increasing militarization of regions like the South China Sea, where Beijing has used drones for surveillance and enforcement of its territorial claims.

Russia, too, has made significant investments in drone technology. Russian drones were used extensively during the conflict in Ukraine, both for ISR (intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance) missions and as part of integrated electronic warfare operations. In Syria, Russian drones have supported airstrikes against rebel forces and terrorist groups, enhancing the Russian military’s situational awareness and target acquisition capabilities.

In 2021, Russia deployed drones during its military exercises along the Ukrainian border, signaling its readiness to incorporate UAS into large-scale conventional warfare. Russia’s use of drones to test NATO defenses and gather intelligence has increased tensions in Eastern Europe, demonstrating how UAS can be used not only in active combat but also in hybrid warfare strategies aimed at destabilizing adversaries.

The Emerging Threat of Drone Swarms

One of the most concerning developments in UAS technology is the rise of drone swarms—groups of autonomous drones that can operate cooperatively to overwhelm enemy defenses. Drone swarms represent a new frontier in UAS warfare, as they can be used to carry out a range of missions, from reconnaissance to coordinated airstrikes, with minimal human oversight.

Both China and Russia have invested heavily in developing swarm capabilities. In a 2019 military exercise, the Chinese military successfully demonstrated a swarm of over 200 drones conducting coordinated operations. These swarms can be used to overwhelm traditional air defenses, making them a potent tool in future conflicts.

The threat posed by drone swarms is particularly concerning for nations like the United States, which relies heavily on advanced air defense systems to protect critical infrastructure and military assets. A well-coordinated drone swarm could potentially disable or neutralize these defenses, allowing hostile forces to carry out attacks with relative impunity.

Weaponizing Commercial UAS: The Ease of Modification

One of the primary reasons why UAS have become such a popular tool for terrorists and rogue states is the ease with which commercial drones can be modified for military purposes. Off-the-shelf drones, designed for commercial or recreational use, can be easily adapted to carry small explosive devices, chemical or biological agents, or even makeshift weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

In 2018, Mexican authorities foiled a cartel plot to use drones to deliver explosives during a political rally. This case highlighted how non-state actors can modify commercially available drones for assassination or mass casualty attacks. The same technology used for agricultural spraying can, with minor modifications, be used to disperse chemical agents over densely populated areas or critical infrastructure.

Terrorists in the Middle East have already demonstrated the ability to weaponize commercial drones, and intelligence agencies warn that it is only a matter of time before these tactics are used in Western countries. The growing accessibility of drone technology, combined with the relative ease of weaponization, makes UAS an attractive option for terrorists looking to carry out attacks without direct human involvement.

Parting Thoughts

The weaponization of UAS by both terrorist groups and nation-states has reshaped modern warfare and posed significant challenges for global security. Drones have empowered non-state actors to strike at more advanced militaries with devastating precision, while nation-states like Iran, China, and Russia have used UAS to project power, carry out covert operations, and support proxy forces. As UAS technology continues to evolve, so too will the methods used to counter these threats.

Chapter 3: Counter-UAS: Strategies for Neutralizing the Growing Drone Threat

As UAS technology has become an integral tool for both terrorist groups and nation-states, the development of countermeasures to neutralize these systems has grown equally critical. Traditional air defense systems, which were designed to counter manned aircraft, missiles, and other conventional threats, are often ineffective against smaller, low-flying drones. The rise of UAS in conflicts and terrorist attacks has pushed military forces, intelligence agencies, and private companies to explore a variety of counter-UAS (C-UAS) strategies. These range from simple detection systems to highly sophisticated jamming, kinetic, and directed-energy solutions. This chapter explores the current state of C-UAS technology, the challenges posed by rapidly evolving drone systems, and the future of counter-drone defenses.

The Complexity of the UAS Threat Environment

Countering the UAS threat is made more difficult by the diversity of drone types, sizes, and operational capabilities. UAS range from hobbyist quadcopters, which can be bought off the shelf, to high-end military-grade systems capable of flying long distances with heavy payloads. The broad spectrum of drone technology necessitates a variety of detection and mitigation strategies. This complexity is compounded by the fact that many UAS can fly below radar detection altitudes and operate autonomously, making them hard to detect and even harder to neutralize.

A particularly vexing problem is posed by commercially available drones, which are inexpensive, small, and easily modified to carry dangerous payloads. These drones, widely accessible to the public, have been repurposed by terrorists, drug cartels, and even nation-states as weapons of war. The difficulty in detecting these systems is exacerbated in environments where there is significant air traffic or where drones are used legitimately for commercial purposes, such as in agriculture, filming, or delivery services. Differentiating between a legitimate drone and a potential threat is one of the most significant challenges faced by modern security forces.

Counter-UAS Technologies: Detection, Jamming, and Kinetic Solutions

The first step in any counter-UAS strategy is detection. Detecting and tracking drones is crucial in order to neutralize potential threats before they reach their targets. However, detecting UAS can be challenging, particularly in crowded urban environments or combat zones where drones blend into the noise of everyday activity.

Several detection technologies are currently being used or developed:

1. Radar Systems: Traditional radar systems are designed to detect large objects, such as airplanes, but they often struggle to detect small UAS. To counter this limitation, radar systems are being upgraded to specifically track the small, low-flying, and slow-moving profiles of drones. In addition, multi-modal radar systems have been developed, which are capable of distinguishing between different types of drones by analyzing their flight characteristics and size.

2. Optical and Infrared Cameras: Visual detection is another key component of C-UAS systems. Optical and infrared cameras, often paired with artificial intelligence (AI)-driven algorithms, can visually identify drones. Thermal imaging systems can also detect the heat signatures emitted by drone motors, making them effective even in low-visibility conditions or at night. However, these systems can be hampered by environmental conditions such as rain, fog, or dust, limiting their effectiveness in some situations.

3. Radio Frequency (RF) Scanning: Since most drones rely on radio signals for control, RF scanners can detect the presence of UAS by identifying the frequencies they use to communicate with their operators. By monitoring for specific RF signatures, security personnel can detect and track drones in real time. However, this method is limited when drones operate autonomously or use encrypted communication links, as these signals are harder to intercept or jam.

Once a drone has been detected, the next step is mitigation. Several mitigation techniques have been developed to neutralize drones, ranging from non-kinetic to kinetic solutions:

1. Jamming and Spoofing: RF jamming is one of the most common methods for disrupting drone operations. By sending a powerful signal on the same frequency as the drone’s control link, jamming systems can block the drone’s communication with its operator, effectively neutralizing it. Spoofing, on the other hand, involves tricking the drone’s GPS system into believing it is somewhere else, causing it to crash or return to its launch point. These systems are effective against most commercial drones but may be less useful against more advanced military systems that use encrypted or jam-resistant communication links.

2. Kinetic Solutions: For situations where jamming is not effective or safe, kinetic solutions are often used. These include nets, projectiles, and even specially trained birds that are used to physically intercept and disable drones. In 2016, the Dutch police famously used trained eagles to intercept rogue drones. In other cases, more advanced systems like anti-drone missiles or projectiles equipped with drone-specific targeting algorithms are deployed to shoot down UAS. However, kinetic solutions come with the risk of collateral damage, particularly in urban environments where drones may be flying near sensitive infrastructure or large populations.

3. Directed Energy Weapons: Another promising countermeasure is the use of directed energy weapons, such as lasers and high-powered microwaves. These systems are capable of destroying drones by disabling their electronics or burning through their structural components. For example, the U.S. Navy has successfully tested the Laser Weapon System (LaWS), which can target and destroy drones at range with pinpoint accuracy. Directed energy weapons offer several advantages over traditional kinetic methods, including precision targeting and reduced risk of collateral damage. However, they also require significant power and may be less effective in adverse weather conditions.

Case Study: Countering the Drone Swarm Threat

While current C-UAS technologies are effective against individual drones, the emergence of drone swarms—groups of autonomous drones that operate in coordination—poses a new and more complex threat. In a drone swarm, multiple drones work together to achieve a common objective, such as overwhelming air defenses, conducting surveillance, or launching coordinated attacks. These swarms are difficult to counter using traditional methods because they can saturate defenses and are more resilient to individual losses.

In 2018, Russia demonstrated its ability to deploy and defend against drone swarms during military exercises in Syria. In one instance, Russian forces claimed to have intercepted and disabled a swarm of over a dozen small drones launched by insurgents. The drones, believed to have been controlled via GPS and pre-programmed flight paths, were equipped with small explosive devices intended to strike Russian air defense systems. Russian officials reported using a combination of jamming and kinetic methods to neutralize the swarm, showcasing the challenges posed by coordinated drone attacks.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) is actively investing in systems to counter drone swarms, recognizing the growing potential for adversaries to use these tactics. One such program is DARPA’s CounterSwarmAI, which is designed to develop AI-driven technologies capable of anticipating and neutralizing autonomous drone swarms before they can carry out their missions.

Future Trends in Counter-UAS: Autonomy, AI, and Cyber Warfare

As drone technology becomes more advanced, so too must the systems used to counter them. One of the most promising developments in C-UAS is the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance detection, tracking, and response capabilities. AI-driven C-UAS systems can process vast amounts of data in real time, allowing them to identify and categorize drone threats more quickly and accurately than human operators. These systems can also learn from previous encounters, improving their effectiveness over time.

In addition to AI, cyber warfare is emerging as a key tool in the counter-drone arsenal. By hacking into a drone’s control system, security forces can take over the aircraft, neutralizing the threat without the need for kinetic action. This approach is particularly useful for dealing with advanced drones that are resistant to jamming or spoofing. However, hacking requires intimate knowledge of the drone’s software and communication protocols, making it a highly specialized and resource-intensive solution.

Another key trend is the development of autonomous counter-UAS platforms, which can detect and neutralize drones without human intervention. These systems use AI to patrol designated airspace, automatically engaging rogue drones with jamming, kinetic, or directed energy weapons as needed. Autonomous C-UAS platforms are particularly useful in high-risk environments, such as military bases or airports, where the threat of drone incursions is constant.

Final Thoughts

The proliferation of UAS technology has created an unprecedented threat to global security. Terrorists, insurgents, and nation-states alike have embraced drones for their versatility, low cost, and ability to carry out both surveillance and offensive operations. In response, the development of counter-UAS systems has become a top priority for governments and defense organizations worldwide. From radar and optical detection to jamming, kinetic interception, and directed energy weapons, a wide range of solutions are being deployed to neutralize the growing threat posed by UAS.

However, as drones become more autonomous and sophisticated, the challenges of countering them will only increase. The future of drone warfare will likely involve AI-driven swarm tactics, cyber warfare, and the integration of UAS into hybrid military strategies. To stay ahead of these threats, nations must continue to invest in advanced C-UAS technologies while fostering international cooperation to regulate the use and proliferation of drone systems.